Resolutive-compositive method:
 Resol:  Wholes to parts
 Comp:  Reassembled into the whole:
 Related to geometry.

Kavka's Comments in Hobbesian Moral and Political Theory
 Hobbes = impressed with geometry.  Called it the mother of all natural science.  See ch. 46 of LEV.  Euclid's elements provide a proof of a proposition that Hobbes thought was false. Use the method to save the benefits of civilization just as geometry made civilization possible -  In De Cive he says that geometry is what makes possible measuring mass, velocity, time, transportation, etc.  (p. 5, Kavka)
 Hobbes realized, however, that people will reject even well-proven conclusions that appear not to be in their interests.  See ch. 11 of LEV - burning of all books of geometry.  He thought his system would be in everyone's interest.
 Hobbes denies to experience the status of philosophical or scientific knowledge because it does not yield universality and certainty.

Ch. 10 of LEV.  Power, Worth, Dignity, Honor, Worthiness:
 Power is either original or instrumental.  Original power is of the body or mind.  Instrumental power is power to acquire more power through objects or things used.
 The greatest human power is the commonwealth.
 To obey is to honor.  No one honors anyone who has no power to help or to hurt them.

The State  The argument for a government power proceeds in two stages:

Two stage argument for government power:

 1.  If men were to follow the laws of nature, they could live peacefully.
 2.  Since they will not abide by the laws of their own accord, they need an all-powerful sovereign to compel them to do so.
 The argument that Hobbes must construct proceeds generally as follows:
 1.  If we follow the L of N, we can live peacefully.
 2.  But we will not follow them without force.
 3.  Therefore, we need an all-powerful sovereign compulsion.

The State of Nature and the State of War:
 1.  Not an actual historical period
 2.  A constant factor in human life
 3.  Exists when mankind is deprived of two beneficient forces:
 a.  the authority of government
 b.  Human reason
 4.  The state of nature is what is left when civil institutions are weak and reason fails to receive due respect.  This (the latter) will always happen when violence is rampant.  (Note that Hobbes says that a person is only to lay down his right to all things when others are willing to do so.)

Rel. to Res. Comp. Method:

 The state of nature is the picture of the results of the analytical decomposition of human society into its elements.  The compositive phase is the state.

See Ch. 13, natural equality:
 The natural condition of mankind explains why we cannot live in peace.  First, there is a natural equality between men.  We have a natural equality of ability to achieve our desires.  (Hobbes claims that even the weaker can kill the stronger through confederation with others, or by trickery).  We also have an equality of hope in attaining our ends, and finally, we all have equal wisdom, since we are all endowed with experience in different types of cases and situations.  What arises from this equality of ability is 2) the production of enemies.  This occurs when two people desire the same thing that they cannot both have.  Diffidence, the willingness to fight to preserve ourselves and what we perceive as our own, is what makes security impossible.  In essence, there is nothing but grief without a common power "to awe them all."

Three Causes of Quarrel:

 This should make sense of Hobbes' claim that the three principal causes of war are competition, diffidence, and glory.  We engage in competition for gain, we are diffident for safety, and we feel glory due to pride and reputation.

The State of Nature and The Laws of Nature
The state of nature does not necessarily consist in actual fighting, but in any disposition to fight at which time there is no assurance to the contrary.  Hobbes puts it as on P. 161.

Law, Morality, and Justice:

 Compare to Aristotle Here.  No law, morality, or justice without the state.  Aristotle claims that injustice only exists within the state and its institutions.  Hobbes also claims that there is no law, no morality, and no injustice in the state of nature.  It is impossible that there be such things since there is no power in the original state to make and secure binding laws.  Human nature controlled by law is morality.  Passions uncontrolled are immorality.
 Although the state of nature is unpleasant, it is not immoral for people to behave as they do.  But they realize that in this condition of relative scarcity and competition, that they must let the passions that incline them to peace take hold.  These passions are a desire to live and a desire to obtain the necessities that conduce to life.
 Since men are rational beings, they recognize the rights and laws of nature, but they also recognize and realize that those laws are only words without the power of the sword behind them.  Thus, they can recognize (rationally) the laws of nature, but they can recognize (just as rationally) that to follow them, without the guarantee that others will also do so, is irrational and contrary to self-preservation.
 The original right of nature (p. 163) - everyone has the right to preserve his life and do anything which in his own judgment is the aptest means to the attainment of that end.
 A law of nature is a calculation of what conduces to conservation and defense, while a right of nature is what one is capable of.

 It may be that in society, one person may, if he is really an egoist, find it more to his advantage to violate contracts.  Thus, his long range interests may not be served by keeping contracts.

Hobbes' Laws of Nature are neither prescr. nor descr.:

 Hobbes' laws of nature are neither prescriptive nor descriptive as they stand.  If they were both, no absolute sovereign would be necessary.  The laws of nature are only a set of rules according to which an ideally reasonable being would pursue his own advantage if he were aware of all circumstances and unswayed by impulse and prejudice.
 Subjects contract with each other, not with the sovereign.  So, the sovereign is not bound by the laws of nature.

 Suppose that Hobbes' account of human nature is correct and it would be advantageous to submit to a sovereign is true.  If Hobbes' account is true, then 1) he has to show that people would actually be better off under a government power, and 2) that they would see that this would be to their advantage.
 The problem is that in order to prove that people would be better off in the power of a sovereign, he had to show people in such a negative light that it is unlikely that they would choose a long-range good.  To put the same point in another way, in order to prove that people would see that living under a sovereign would be to their advantage, Hobbes had to make people so enlightened and sensible that they would really have no need for an absolute sovereign.

Contrast Between Descriptive and Normative Theories:
 Hobbes required consent, denied the divine right of kings, and defended the existence of the state on utilitarian grounds.  This hints at a democratic theory.  On the other hand, the Hobbesian sovereign is a dictator.  The contract, however, is primarily between naturalism and moralism.  Hobbes tried to combine a descriptive view with a normative argument.  He tried to show that it makes sense, and is therefore right, to submit to a power that will be conducive to "commodious living."

Notes from the text, chapters 11, 13-15, 17, and 18 of Leviathan

 Human Nature and War:
NO GREATEST GOOD
 There is no greatest good as is spoken of by the ancient and medieval philosophers.  A thing is determined to be good because we aim at it, and not the other way around.  And the thing that is a clear general inclination of all men is a desire for power and the reason is that even when a person has power, he desires more so that he can assure the power and means to live well.

NATURAL EQUALITY
 1.  We have an equality of ability to destroy each other through force or "secret machination" or confederacy with others.  We are also equal in experience, and even if people are not wise from that experience, they believe themselves to be.  159

 2.  Therefore, we have an equality of hope in attaining our ends.  So, when two people want the same thing that they cannot both have, they fight.  So when someone produces or acquires something, he is in fear that someone else will take it.  160

 3.  Therefore, there is no way for anyone to secure himself other than by attaining more.  And this augmentation of dominion is not only necessary for survival, but also ought to be allowed.

 4.  And men have only grief in living in such a condition without a power to subdue them all.

 5.  Therefore, in the nature of man there are three sources or causes of quarrel:  160

CAUSES OF WAR
  1.  Competition - to invade for gain.
  2.  Diffidence - for safety
  3.  Glory - for reputation

DESCRIPTION OF WAR
 6.  It follows that all the time that men live without a common power they are in the state of WAR -- and this state does not consist in actual fighting, but in a disposition to fight, while there is no assurance that they will not.  ALL OTHER TIME IS PEACE.

MAJOR QUOTATION
 7.  In a time of war, there is no place for industry, no farming, building, science, art, society; there is continual fear, and the life of man is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." 161

NO IMMORALITY
 8.  The desires and passions in man are, in themselves, not a sin.  Neither are the actions that proceed from those passions until there are laws that forbid them.  And no laws can be made until there is someone agreed upon who shall make them.

INTERNATIONAL LAW?
 9.  Even when there is a ruler, there is still a state of war, but not the same.  The ruler upholds the industry of the subjects while poised to fight against some other power.

 10. And so in the war of every man against every man,nothing can be unjust.  Where there is no common power, there is no law.  And where there is no law, there is no injustice.

 11.  It is consequent to the state of war that there be no property distinct.  The only thing that a person claims is what he can get for as long as he manages to keep it.  162

Peace  162

 1.  People are inclined to peace in three ways:  1) Fear of death, 2) Desire of necessities, and 3) Hope to obtain them.
 2.  The articles of peace that are conducive to agreement are LAWS OF NATURE.

RIGHT OF NATURE
 3.  Right of nature:  to preserve one's own life.  The right of nature is not a moral principle.  It is used to induce men to remove the ground for its exercise.

  Liberty - absence of external impediments.

LAW OF NATURE
 4.  Law of Nature:  is a precept of reason by which one is forbidden to do that which is destructive to his life, or takes away the means of preserving it.

 The laws of nature are laws of reason; the standards of morality.  The describe principles completely at variance with behavior in the state of nature.  They are only binding in foro interno in the state of nature.  They bind in for externo after the establishment of the state.

 5.  Right = liberty to do or forebear.
  Law - determines and binds one to do or not to do something.

DEFINITIONS OF RIGHT AND LAW
 6.  Since in a state of war everyone is guided by his own reason, everyone has a right to everything, even another person's body.  There is no security of living a normal life span.

 7.  Therefore, it is a rule of reason (LAW OF NATURE) [163] that one should endeavor peace and when it is unattainable, he should "use all helps and advantages of war."  That law (the first) states generally that 1) seek peace and follow it, and 2) defend yourself.

SECOND LAW OF NATURE
 8.  The first law leads to the second.  A person should be willing, when others are too, to give up the right to all things, "and be contented with so much liberty against other men as he would allow other men against himself."  164

 10. Since the force of words is too weak to force men to perform their agreements, there are two ways to strengthen it:  1) Fear of consequences, 2) glory and pride.

Chapter XIII  Of the Natural Condition of Mankind, as Concerning their Felicity, and Misery:  "The Happiness and Unhappiness of Mankind in their Natural Condition"

1.  Nature has created men equally, both in the faculties of the body and the mind.  And this equality has two parts:  1) ability to destroy each other, 2) equality of hope in attaining their ends.

 These equalities lead to enmity when two people desire the same thing that they cannot both possess.

 There is, then, no security.  And thus, there is no pleasure, but a great deal of pain, in living without a power that can "over-awe them all."

2.  The causes of war (as well as our basic human drives) are competition, diffidence, and glory.
 The state of war exists even when there is no actual fighting, but only a disposition to fight (analogous to the state of nations whose guns are pointed toward each other at all times).

3.  But man's nature is not to be accused - the desires of men, and their passions, are no sin.  And the actions that proceed from them are not sins unless there is a law that forbids them.  And no one can know this until there are laws, and no law can be made until there is agreed a person (or governing body) who can make that law.
 Since there are no laws in the state of nature, there is nothing that can be considered unjust.  "Where there is no common power, there is no law; where no law, no injustice."  There is also no property, "but only that to be every man's that he can get; and for so long, as he can keep it."

PASSIONS THAT DRIVE MEN TO SEEK PEACE
4.  People are inclined to peace by three passions:  1) Desire of things that are conducive to commodious living, 2) hope to obtain those things, and 3) fear of death.

How NOT to understand Hobbes (affirmed principles of "Hobbism"):
 1.  Man is thoroughly evil in nature, without conscience.
 2.  Civil society is a thin veneer of hypocrisy.
 3.  No objectively valid distinction between right and wrong.  Right and wrong are based on the whims of the ruler)

Chapter XIV: Of the First and Second Natural Laws, and of Contracts.

RIGHT OF NATURE AND LAW OF NATURE
1.  The right of nature - the liberty each person has to preserve his own life.

2.  Law of Nature - a precept or general rule that forbids a person to do what is destructive of his life or removes the means to preserve it.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RIGHT AND LAW OF NATURE
 The difference between a right and a liberty consists in the fact that a right consists in the liberty to do or not to do, while a law determines and binds a person either to do or not to do.
 The laws of nature are neither prescriptive nor descriptive.

FIRST LAW OF NATURE
3.  In the state of war, everyone has a right to everything - even the body of another person.  And it follows that no one has any security, or hope to live a normal span of time.  And this leads to the FIRST LAW OF NATURE.  Everyone ought to seek peace, but when it is not attainable, he may use "all helps and advantages" of war.  Thus, the two parts of this law are to 1) seek peace and follow it, and 2) defend ourselves.

SECOND LAW OF NATURE
4.  The SECOND LAW is derived from the first.  It is to "lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himself."  This law is to be followed when others are willing to do the same.

RENOUNCING AND TRANSFERRING A RIGHT
5.  Rights are given up in one of 2 ways:  either by renouncing (to anyone) or by transferring (for benefit).  When one renounces a right, he does not care to whom the benefit goes; when someone transfers a right, he intends a benefit to one or more people.

THE ORIGIN OF DUTY
 Once a right is given, the person who gives it is BOUND not to hinder those who now have the right.  And this constitutes a DUTY not to make void a voluntary action of his own.  If he does, this constitutes injustice or injury.

6.  The signs of the renouncing or transferring of a right is either through words, actions, or a combination of these.  And these BONDS come from a fear of the consequences that come from voiding the agreement.  164

7.  The transferring or renouncing of a right is done voluntarily.  The object of every voluntary action is some good to the person who performs the action.  The good that a person expects to receive is the security of his life.

DEFINITION OF 'CONTRACT'
8.  Contract - mutual transferring of right.
 Characteristics of a contract:  165
  1.  One delivers, the other waits - compact or covenant
  2.  Both wait, but contract now.

9.  When the transfer of right is not mutual, the one person who gives a right does so in hope to gain friendship, service, reputation, or deliver his mind from the pain of compassion.  This is a GIFT.

10.  Signs of contract are either express or inferred (Implied contract)  CF. Crito.  165

11. Whoever performs his part of the contract first merits what he is to receive.

COVENANTS IN THE STATE OF NATURE
12.  If a covenant is made in the state of nature, it is void since there is no power to compel them to performance.  The bonds of words are too weak, and therefore there needs to be a power to force compliance.  There is no fear of non-performance in the civil state.

13.  The subject of a covenant always falls under deliberation and an act of the will -- when we covenant, we understand it to be possible.  When a promise is not possible, there is no covenant.  If the promise proves impossible afterwards, it is still valid - but only in the sense of the value of it, not in its performance.

14.  There are two ways to be freed from covenants:  1) performing it, 2) being forgiven.

COVENANTS BY FEAR
15.  When we enter into covenants by fear, they are obligatory, as in the state of nature.  This is even the case in the commonwealth - at least until law says otherwise.  Furthermore, old contracts void new ones, and no one is expected to covenant not to protect himself.

16.  There are two strengths of covenants in man's nature:  A fear of consequence of breaking it or pride - in appearing not to need to break it.  But we cannot count on pride when considering pursuers of wealth, command, or sensual pleasure.  Thus, we have only to count on fear.  And that fear is either of invisible spirits or the other men who will be offended.  The fear of God is greater in power, but the fear of others is the most great since in the state of nature there is no religion.

Chapter XV:  Of other Laws of Nature

THIRD LAW OF NATURE/ORIGIN OF JUSTICE IN THIS LAW
1.  THIRD law of nature - follows from the second.  Perform covenants made.  In this law of nature consists justice.  Since good is determined by what anyone seeks, and the individual in the state of nature determines what is good, all men agree that peace is good and so the means to peace is good.  These are the laws of nature.  They are moral virtues and their contraries are vices.
 People must be coerced into following the laws of nature.

2.  Biblical Analogy - regarding justice and God.

3.  The importance of character in determining a just person.  A just person takes care to be sure that all his actions are just; an unjust man neglects it. A just man does not become unjust because of a few actions, or through passions just as an unjust man does not become just through fear.

4.  Commutative and Distributive Justice
 Commutative - of the contractor - two ways - reversible.  THE INDIVIDUAL
 Distributive - the act of defining what is just -- THE SOVEREIGN

FOURTH LAW OF NATURE/GIFTS, GRATITUDE
5.  Fourth Law,.  If someone receives a gift,l the giver should not repent his gift on, or due to, the ingratitude of the receiver.

ACCOMMODATION
6.  FIFTH law.  Complaisance.  Every man should strive to accommodate himself to the rest.  Do not take more than your share.  Anyone who does is to be cast out of society.  Observers of this law are sociable.

PARDON
7.  Sixth Law.  Upon caution of a future time, pardon the offenses of those who desire it.  Not doing so leads to war.

REVENGE
8.  Seventh Law.  In revenge, look to the goodness to follow, not the evil of the past.  Punishment is for the correction of the offender, or direction of others.  Glorying in the hurt of another is to no end.

HATRED
9.  Eighth Law.  No one should declare hatred or contempt of another - pride.

EQUALITY
10. Ninth Law - everyone must acknowledge another as his equal by nature.  Because we are equal by nature and will not enter into contracts on equal terms.

JUDGES
11.  Tenth Law.  Judges must judge equally - without this, controversies can only be determined by war.

RIGHTS
12.  Eleventh Law:  (reverse with 10) No man should require to reserve himself any right which he is not sure should be reserved to everyone else.

DIVISION OF GOODS
13. Twelfth Law:  Things that cannot be divided, should be enjoyed in common (if possible).  If not, without stint; or proportionably to the number of those who have a right.

NO DIVISION OF GOODS
14.  Thirteenth Law:  Things that cannot be divided nor enjoyed in common, should be given such that alternate use, first possession, or determination by lot is necessary.

 There are two types of lots:  Arbitrary and Natural
 Arbitrary are agreed upon.  Natural is first seizure, first born, or first possessor.

SAFE CONDUCT
15.  Fourteenth Law:  Safe conduct is to be assured to mediators of peace.

ARBITRATORS
16.  Fifteenth Law: controversy requires the judgement of an arbitrator.

THE LAWS OF NATURE BIND IN FORO INTERNO IN THE STATE OF NATURE, BUT IN FORO EXTERNO IN THE CIVIL STATE.

 The laws of nature oblige in the sense that they SHOULD take place; but in terms of putting them in action, this is not always the case.

 The laws of nature are immutable and eternal since the non-compliance to them can never be made laws.  This is true since war shall not preserve life, nor peace destroy it.