2.) Andren, H.  1994.  Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Birds and Mammals in Landscapes with Different Proportions of Suitable Habitat - A Review.  Oikos 71(3): 355-366.
The author reviewed the literature to make the generalization that in bird and mammal populations, connectivity is severely effected by landscape fragmentation.

3.) Fahrig, L. and G. Merriam.  1994.  Conservation of Fragmented Populations.  Conservation Biology 8(1): 50-59.
The authors present evidence that landscape spatial structure is essential to understanding fragmentation among populations.

4.) Gardner, R.H. and R.V. O'Neill. 1991. Pattern, process, and predictability: the use of neutral models for landscape analysis. Pages 289-307 in Turner and Gardner (1991).
The authors investigate the effects of percolation thresholds on neutral landscape models that demonstrate various levels contagion.

5.) Green, D.G.  1994.  Connectivity and complexity in landscapes and ecosystems.
Pacific Conservation Biology , in press.  Available from the Internet. URL: http://www.csu.edu.au/people/dgg/esa93.html
Through investigating the effects of disturbance regimes on species diversity in simulated landscapes, the author, discovered a phase transition at critical levels of disturbance.  Hence, as disturbance increased linearly, species diversity would suddenly decrease exponentially.

6.) Gustafson E. J. and R. H. Gardner.  1996.  The effect of landscape heterogeneity on the probability of patch colonization.  Ecology 77(1): 94-107.
The authors use an individual-based dispersal model to measure connectivity among suitable habitat patches on simulated neutral landscapes.

7.) Gustafson, E. J. and G. R. Parker.  1992.  Relationships between landcover proportion and indices of landscape spatial pattern.  Landscape Ecology 7(2): 101-110.
The authors simulate binary neutral landscapes (forest, non-forest) to quantify the performance of percolation models with empirical data.

8.) Keitt, T.H., D.L. Urban, and B.T. Milne. 1997. Detecting critical scales in fragmented landscapes. Conservation Ecology [online]1(1): 4. Available from the Internet. URL: http://www.consecol.org/vol1/iss1/art4
The authors use simulated landscapes to quantify habitat connectivity at hierarchical scales, and make comparisons with empirical data.  The investigation demonstrated that connectivity among a landscape is scale dependent.

9.) Milne, B. T.  1992. Spatial Aggregation and Neutral Models in Fractal Landscapes.  American Naturalist 139(1): 32-57.
The author developed a neutral model of species co-occurrence to investigate the effects of scale on organism parameters (i.e., home range size, dispersal ability, or speed with which organisms use resources) in fragmented landscapes.

10.) Milne B. T., Johnson A. R., Keitt T. H., Hatfield C. A., David J. and P. T. Hraber.  1996.  Detection of critical densities associated with pinon-juniper woodland ecotones.  Ecology 77(3): 805-821.
The authors simulated the gradated neutral landscapes to assess ecotonal effects of encroaching grasslands on pinon-juniper woodlands.

11.) O'Neill, R. V., R. H. Gardner and M. G. Turner.  1992.  A hierarchical neutral model for landscape analysis.  Landscape Ecology 7(1): 55-61.
The authors present a methodology for generating hierarchical neutral landscapes based upon landscape metrics (i.e., contagion).

12.) Palmer, M. W.  1992.  The Coexistence of Species in Fractal Landscapes.  American Naturalist.  139(2): 375-397.
The author simulated species interacting across neutral landscapes with varying fractal dimensions.  The investigation demonstrated that as the fractal dimension (increase in mass) approached its euclidian dimension, the beta diversity decreased while connectivity increased.

13.) Plotnick, R. E., Gardner, R. H. and R. V. Oneill.  1993.  Lacunarity indexes as measures of landscape texture.  Landscape Ecology 8(3): 201-211.
 The authors use lacunarity as an index to measure degrees of texture in 1-3 dimensions of simulated neutral landscapes with graduated levels of percolation, contagion, and self-similarity.

14.) Turchin Peter. 1996.  Fractal analyses of animal movement: A critique. Ecology 77(7): 2086-2090.
 The author utilizes neutral random walk models to determine the validity of fractal analysis techniques in helping to better understand animal movement paths.  He concludes that the use of the fractal dimension as a metric to assess movement patterns is weak due to their relatively poor self-similarity and bias to the small scales on which most animals move.

15.) With, K. A.  1997. The application of neutral landscape models in conservation biology. Conservation Biology 11(5): 1069-1080.
The author suggest how concepts from neutral landscape models can be applied to issues in conservation biology; i.e. metapopulation models.  She stresses that development of a generalized, spatially explicit framework is vital to the development of individual (species) based modeling.

16.) With, K. A. and T. O. Crist.  1995.  Critical Thresholds in Species Responses to Landscape Structure.  Ecology 76(8): 2446-2459.
The authors use landscape based neutral models to investigate changes in spatial patterns known as critical thresholds.  These thresholds relate to dispersal potential (connectivity) among patches, and are of importance to better understand the encroachment of habitat loss on threatened and endangered species.

17.) With, K. A., Gardner, R. H. and Turner, M. G.  1997.  Landscape connectivity and population distributions in heterogeneous environments.  Oikos 78(1): 151-169.
The authors use neutral landscape models to demonstrate that the quality of landscape connectivity is a function of its percolation threshold and fractal like self-similarity.

18.) With, K. A and A. W. King.  1997.  The use and misuse of neutral landscape models in ecology.  Oikos 79(2): 219-229.
The authors clarify the purpose of neutral landscape models and review the literature on applications to ecology.  They emphasize the application of neutral models to future studies, rather than theoretical developments.

19.) With, K. A. and A. W. King.  1999.  Dispersal success on fractal landscapes: a consequence of lacunarity thresholds.  Landscape Ecology 14(1): 73-82
The authors use neutral models coupled with landscape metrics (i.e., contagion, and lacunarity) to investigate the effects of habitat fragmentation on dispersal success.

20.) With, K. A. and A. W. King.  1999.  Extinction thresholds for species in fractal landscapes.  Conservation Biology 13(2): 314-326.
The authors use neutral models to investigate the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on extinction thresholds.  Through simulated fractal landscapes extinction thresholds are developed for species that are endangered.

Books
Grimmett, Geoffrey.  1989.  Percolation. New York: Springer-Verlag, 296p.

Nitecki, M. H. and Antoni Hoffman.  1987.  Neutral models in biology.  New York: Oxford University Press, 166p.

Stauffer, Dietrich.  1987.  Introduction to percolation theory. Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 124p.

Turner, M. G. and R. H. Gardner.  1991.  Quantitative Methods in Landscape Ecology.  New York: Springer-Verlag,

Articles
Gardner, R. H., B. T. Milne, M. G. Turner, and R. V. O'Neill.  1987.  Neutral models for the analysis of broad-scale landscape pattern.  Landscape Ecology 1(1): 19-28.

Keitt, T. H. and A. R. Johnson.  1995.  Spatial Heterogeneity and Anomalous Kinetics - Emergent Patterns in Diffusion Limited Predatory Prey Interaction.  Journal of Theoretical Biology 172(2): 127-139.

Keitt, T. H.  1996.  Spectral Representation of Neutral Landscapes.  Working Paper, Santa Fe Institute. Available from the Internet. URL: http://www.santafe.edu/sfi/publications/Working-Papers/96-12-087.ps