For further examples, see also: http://www.fallacyfiles.org/, and click on “Complete Alphabetical List of Fallacies”, left column. The ones listed below are the only ones you will be tested on.
I. Fallacies of Relevance:
- Argument from Ignorance
Arguing that a proposition is true simply on the basis that it has not been
proven false (& vice versa).
Ex: No one has ever proven that the Loch Ness monster doesn't exist;
therefore, it does exist.
- Appeal to Inappropriate Authority
The appeal to parties having no legitimate claim to authority in the matter at
hand.
Ex: I play a doctor on TV, and I recommend this brand of aspirin, so you
should buy it.
- Argument Against the Person (Ad Hominem)
Directing one's attack not at a conclusion, but rather at the person who
asserts or defends it.
Ex: Everyone knows that the mayor has a son who's a drug addict;
therefore, you should just disregard her arguments about the legalization of
marijuana.
- Appeal to Pity
Appealing not to rational argument and evidence but rather to the emotional
response of the audience.
Ex: I know I failed all my exams in here and my attendance was bad, but
please, Prof. Smith, you've just got to give me an "A" or it will
break my parents heart and they may die of the strain.
- Appeal to Force
Attempting to persuade someone by force or threat rather than by reason and
argument.
Ex: Give me that swing or I'll call my daddy and he'll beat up your
daddy.
- Straw Man
Attacking a weakened or distorted representation of your opponent's argument.
Ex: Mr. Lu has argued against prayer in public schools. Obviously, he
advocates atheism. But atheism is what they have in Russia, and it works hand
in hand with communism. Mr. Lu is wrong!
II. Fallacies of Ambiguity:
- Equivocation
When the same term appears to be used consistently but in fact relies on
several different meanings.
Ex: Good steaks are rare these days, so don't order yours well done.
- Amphiboly
Arguments that rely on statements that are amphibolous,
or of indeterminate meaning.
Ex: Walking up O'Connell St., the statue comes into view. Apparently
that statue gets around!
III. Others:
- Complex Question
Deceptively combining two or more questions into a single one. A
"trick" question.
Ex: Have you stopped beating your children yet, Mr. Smith?
- False Cause
Occurs when the link between premises and conclusion depends on improbable or
non-existent cause.
Ex: Every time the mascot danced during halftime, the team won. Let's
keep that mascot dancing!
- Slippery Slope
A variety of false cause - rests upon alleged chain reaction that is unlikely
to occur.
Ex: Let naughty children go unpunished just once, and you'll start them
on the road to crime & jail.
- False Dichotomy
Committed when disjunctive (either...or) premise hides other alternatives.
Ex: The choice is yours: the spotted owl, or economic prosperity.
- Begging the Question
Takes several forms: "circular reasoning", and assuming in premise(s)
what's to be shown in conclusion.
Ex: I know God exists because the Bible says he does, and the Bible is
true because it's God's word.
- Accident
Committed when a general rule is applied to a case it was never intended to
cover.
Ex: Anyone who cuts another person with a knife is a criminal.
Therefore, arrest that surgeon now!
- Hasty Generalization
Arguing from a small and/or non-representative example of a group to what's
true of group as whole.
Ex: John's blue car rusted out after only two years, therefore my blue
car will do the same.
- Composition
Erroneously transferring attributes from the parts to the whole (i.e., what's
true of parts is true of whole.)
Ex: Each atom in this piece of chalk is invisible. Therefore, the chalk
is invisible.
- Division
Erroneously transferring attributes from the whole to the parts (i.e., what's
true of whole is true of parts.)
Ex: The completed jigsaw puzzle is circular in shape. Therefore, each
piece of the puzzle is circular.